With spineless plants it is not possible to make such ‘generic’ distinctions; for the variation of the leaves in size and shape is endless, and the differences are not clearly marked¹; but we must try to distinguish on another principle. There are many classes of such plants and they differ widely, as rock-rose² bryony madder privet³ kneoron marjoram savory sphakos⁴ (sage) elelisphakos⁵ (salvia) horehound konyza balm, and others like these; and in addition to these we have the plants with a ferulalike stem⁶ or with a stem composed of fibre, as fennel horse-fennel⁷ narthekia (ferula) narthex (ferula) and the plant called by some wolf’s bane,⁸ and others like these. All these, as well as any other ferula-like plants, may be placed in the class of under-shrubs.

Of spineless under-shrubs and their differences.

II. The various forms and the differences between the above mentioned plants are in some cases more, in some less easy to distinguish. Of rock rose⁹ they distinguish two kinds, ‘male’ and ‘female,’ in that the one is¹ larger, tougher, more glossy,¹¹ and has a crimson flower; both however are like the wild rose,¹² save that the flower is smaller and scentless. There are also two kinds of kneoron, one white, the other black. The white has a leathery oblong